(Serpell, J., 2002. The Domestic Dog: Its Evolution, Behaviour and Interactions with People. 2002 edited edition [Original publication date: 21st September 1995]. Cambridge. Cambridge University Press.)
Page 98: ‘Long periods of daily social isolation or abandonment by the owner may also provoke adult separation problems and excessive barking. The existence of the phenomenon known as ‘kennel dog syndrome’ (Scott & Bielfelt, 1976) was also tentatively confirmed by the positive association between the prevalence of both social and non-social fears and the ages of which puppies were acquired.’
Page 98: ‘There are large individual and breed differences in the propensity to develop particular behaviour problems. It may be convenient to explain all canine behaviour in terms of supposedly ancestral lupine patterns, or to lump all dog breeds together as if the processes underlying their development were identical, but the truth is that each breed is behaviourally unique: a pattern or process that appears to hold true for Rottweiler’s may fall apart entirely when applied to Shih Tzus. “ Page 99: ‘Perhaps the most outstanding conclusion to be drawn from this review is how little we actually know about the development of most behaviour problems in dogs, despite the obvious value of such knowledge in the struggle to reduce to eliminate these problems in the dog population.
SOCIAL AND COMMUNICATION BEHAVIOUR OF COMPANION DOGS
Page 116: ‘During the process of domestication, people have taken advantage of the social system of the dog, and have exploited and enhanced the tendency for dogs to behave in a subordinate way towards humans. Many of the behaviour patterns of dogs bear a close resemblance to those seen in wolves, and so it has become customary to assume that the social behaviour of dogs is simply a corrupted version of that seen in wolves. However, it has become clear in recent years that the social systems of carnivores are highly flexible, even within species, and that they often depend upon ecological factors, such as the availability and distribution of food … It is self-evident that the ecology of wolves differs in almost every respect from that of those breeds of dogs, such as the Pekinese, that have lived in close association with man for many hundreds of years.’ Page 116: ‘However, during the derivation of the more modern breeds, humans have taken over one of the most important functions of the wolf’s social system, that is, the almost complete suppression of breeding … Rather than the social structure itself determining which individuals will breed each season, and which will not, the human breeder selects the partners for each mating, based on the particular morphological or behavioural characteristics that he or she desires to see in the offspring’. Page 116: ‘Because of the ecological and genetic differences between dog and wolf, the social behaviour of companion dogs is worth studying in its own right. It must always be borne in mind that the degree of dependence on man is likely to have a major effect on any inherited aspects of social behaviour, and that any inherited tendencies will be further modified by circumstances under which each individual dog lives. Page 116: ‘ Examination of the social systems employed by wild canids suggests some possibilities that could have been selected for during domestication. Fox (1978) divided the different types of social organizations [sic] in the canids into three major categories: - ‘Type I canids, a temporary pair bond is formed between male and female during the breeding season.’ - ‘Permanent pair-bonds are a characteristic of the Type II system, and in addition the young often stay with their parents until the following breeding season.’ - ‘The most complex form of organisation, classed as Type III, is the pack, usually consisting of related individuals.’ Page 116/117: ‘The species most relevant as far as the domestic dog is concerned, the wolf, can be put into all three categories, depending upon geographical race and the circumstances under which each individual or group lives. Since it is possible that the domestic dog has arisen from multiple domestications of several races of wolf … there is no reason to assume that all domestic dogs should exhibit the same social repertoire.’ Page 117: ‘Unfortunately, the close association betweens dogs and humans also makes the social behaviour of dogs difficult to study in isolation … Companion dogs are limited to an ever greater extent; many pass their lives entirely isolated from conspecifics apart from short daily exercise periods, and even where dogs are kept in groups, the sex-ratio is always determined by the owner, rather than by natural immigration and emigration.’ Page 118: ‘Dogs of the less physically modified breeds have many visual communication methods in common with wolves, including those postures that indicate dominance status, aggression and fear. Abrantes (1987) has classified these postures shown by wolves using two primary dimensions: aggressive / fearful and dominant / submissive.’ Page 119: ‘Visual communication between wolves or dogs is particularly apparent in their facial expressions. One of the most effective signals used by more dominant dogs is the direct stare. When two dogs first meet, subordinate individuals break eye contact earlier than dominant ones … Confusion can often arise if a dog continues to be stared at despite having already broken eye contact. Such a dog may attack without any of the usual threat signal purely through fear at such a situation. Similarly, if a dog continues to stare at a more dominant dog, the dominant animal’s intentions may be reinforced by more direct threatening signals, including baring of the teeth and snarling.’ Page 119: ‘Despite using a wide variety of visual communication methods it has been suggested that dogs may be less reliant on them than their wild ancestors. Selection by humans for certain morphological characters has reduced some dogs’ abilities to use certain structures for visual communication … Dogs with drooping ears and/or docked tails may be less able to signal their status than those with more wolf-like body conformation. Similarly, long-haired breeds will be unable to raise their hackles effectively and some may be unable communicate through eye contact or staring. Due to this reduction in reliance on visual communication is has been suggested than dogs rely more on other forms of communication, particularly olfactory signals. ‘ Page 120: ‘Olfactory communication in the dog is conducted via two main methods; the deposition of scents in the environment such as faeces, urine and anal sac secretions, and the distinctive body odours of individual dogs.’
THE ETHOLOGY AND EPIDEMIOLOGY OF CANINE AGGRESSION Randall Lockwood Page 132: ‘In Man Meets Dog (1953), Konrad Lorenz praised the wonders of domestication that, in a few thousand years, had transformed the wolf into the docile Alsatian dog which his children could playfully and fearlessly torment.’ Page 132: ‘ Lorenz admitted in his later years that much of what had written about dogs was simply wrong. His assumption that domestication had largely purged the wolf of the behavior that made it potentially dangerous to man was one of his more serious errors.’ [sic] Page 132: ‘Biting is obviously a key component of predatory behavior in canids. However, most social canids show surprisingly low levels of intra-specific aggression.’ [sic] Page 132: ‘It is important to recognize [sic] that artificial selection, which has resulted in the production of various breeds of dogs, frequently produces exaggerated physical or behavioural characteristics that would be maladaptive in free-living wild canids. For example, racing breeds such as greyhounds and whippets can outrun most wolves, yet the changes mankind has produced in these animals would render them virtually helpless in the world of the wild wolf.’ Page 132: ‘A major human objective in the production of dog breeds has been the creation of animals more aggressive than their wild ancestors. This has been done to provide protection through inter-specific aggression (e.g. most guarding breeds) or for our ‘entertainment’, in the form of the heightened intra-specific aggression of fighting breeds, including ‘pit bull’ type dogs. Page 137: ‘Problems of irresponsible ownership are not unique to pit bulls or any other breed, nor will they be in the future. Effective animal control legislation must emphasize [sic] responsible and humane ownership of genetically sound animals, as well as the responsible supervision of children and animals when they interact … this can be encouraged in several ways: 1] By strengthening and enforcing laws against dog fighting and the irresponsible use of guard and attack dogs. 2] By eliminating the mass-production of poorly bred and unsocialized animals in large-scale ‘puppy mills’. [sic] 3] By introducing and enforcing strong animal control laws that place the burden of responsibility for the animal’s actions on its owner. 4] By encouraging programs that educate the public about responsible dog ownership and the problems of dog bite.’ CANINE BEHAVIOURAL THERAPY Roger A. Mugford Page 140: ‘Not so long ago, the notion of dogs needing the attentions of a behaviour therapist would have seemed ludicrous, and even in 1993 the idea still seems strange to some. The field is a mere two decades old’ Page 140: ‘Nevertheless, during the past 20 years there has been a remarkable growth in numbers of practitioners and in the sophistication of the methods employed to modify behaviour problems in dogs. If one wonders how dogs managed without animal behaviour therapists in days gone by, the answer is that they suffered or were killed. Unwanted or inappropriate behaviour was, and probably still is, one of the major reasons for early euthanasia in dogs (Stead, 1982), despite the potential for saving these young dog’s lives through the use of behaviour therapy (see Burghardt, 1991). Page 140: ‘Social attitudes towards the dog are changing, from one that was functional and relatively emotion-free to the contemporary attitude where owners may believe that their dogs are truly members of the family. Just as society would not sanction the killing of a demanding grandmother, so, to many, the rejection or destruction of a difficult dog is not acceptable if there is some practical and affordable alternative. I am certain that most behavioural problems can be resolved to the benefit and safety of animals, their owners and society.’ Page 140: ‘Animal behaviour therapy is the application of scientific principles to modify an animal’s behaviour for the ultimate benefit of both the animal and the owner.’ Page 140: ‘During the 1960s and 1970s, the application of learning theory and research in operant behaviour achieved wide acceptance amongst psychiatrists and psychologists dealing with disturbed or mentally subnormal people (e.g. Thompson & Grabowski, 1977). These same ideas can, with modification, be applied also to the treatment of behavioural problems in animals. The field of comparative psychology, especially where it deals with the origins of psychopathologies in humans and animals, can also be applied to the treatment of dogs and other companion animals.’ Page 141: ‘Ethological studies of the dog’s wild relatives, such as the wolf Canis lupus, and the coyote Canis latrans, have undoubtedly given us better insight into the behaviour of dogs. In particular, it has helped us appreciate what constitutes as normal or abnormal behaviour.’ Page 141: ‘Ethological theory can also have profound practical impact upon how dogs are viewed and treated. The concept of dominance hierarchies, for examples, has become a controversial issue amongst ethologists, particularly regarding its importance as a factor governing social interactions and relationships in species such as wolves (see Lockwood, 1979). Page 141: ‘There is a widespread belief that many of the behavioural problems presented by dogs arise from mistakes by their owners.’ Page 142: ‘Trauma and misfortune can be a significant factor in the ontogeny of behavioural problems..’ Fearfulness Page 149: ‘The expression of fear in novel or threatening situations is a desirable, adaptive trait in wild animals. Much of the focus of domestication of wild animals has been to reduce this fearfulness (Mugford, 1989). In the case of domestic dogs, owners often expect their pets to be unafraid and confident in a remarkable range of circumstances and levels of stimulation, which for some individuals may prove excessive. Fearfulness in the dog may result from a combination of genetic, neurobiological … and ontogenetic factors such as early experience.’ Page 149: ‘Dogs presenting either generalized [sic] fears or specific phobias can be a difficult challenge for animal behaviour therapy and refractory to treatment. Such behaviour, however, provides an interesting opportunity for applying techniques to animals that were originally devised for the treatment of disabling fears and phobias in humans. ‘ Page 151: ‘The principle that inconvenient or ill-behaving dogs are not just discarded or killed but helped, reformed and tolerated is an important sign that human society may be acquiring civilized attitudes to animals in general. [sic]’