(Berghammer, L. E., 2008. Effects on enclosure design on the behaviour and physiology of the captive grizzly bear (Ursus arctos horribilis) [online dissertation]. Edition unknown. Ann Arbor, United States. ProQuest; UMI Dissertations Publishing 2008. Available at: http://books.google.co.uk/books?id=3vgRCKa83NoC&printsec=frontcover#v=onepage&q&f=false. [Accessed 1st December 2014]. Referencing details available at: http://search.proquest.com/docview/288221254 [Accessed 1st December 2014].)
(Berghammer, L. E., 2008. Effects on enclosure design on the behaviour and physiology of the captive grizzly bear (Ursus arctos horribilis) [online dissertation]. Bachelor of Science. Dissertation, University of Wisconsin.
" Effects on enclosure design on the behaviour and physiology of the captive grizzly bear (Ursus arctos horribilis) "
By Erin Lynn Berghammer
Bachelor in Science in Biology
University of Wisconsin - Platteville
Platteville W1
2004
[Abnormal behaviour and stress in captivity]
Page 4: 'In their natural environment animals must adapt to ever-changing situations, such as avoiding predators, finding sufficient food, and some form of interaction with conspecifics ... In the capitve world, daily activities are highly structured and the animal has little to no control (Carlstead, 1996; Swaisgood et al., 2003). As a result, captive animals have little to do and often express excessive inactivity or stereotypic behavior (Swaisgood et al., 2003).' [sic] Page 5: 'Hediger (1968) was among the first to document that abnormal or maladaptive behavior could result from captive environments that did not provide access to adequate space or environmental cues. Living in captivity may interfere with normal morphologic, behavioral, and/or physiologic development, thus decreasing the expression of such species-specific behaviors as foraging, mate-seeking and hunting (Carlstead, 19996, 1998; Miller et al.,, 1998).' [sic]
Page 5: 'When animals are prevented from performing behavior from their normal repertoire, as when living in unsuitable conditions, they may instead perform stereotypic behaviors (Kolter, 1995; Carlstead, 1996; Liu et al., 2006). A stereotypy should be distinguished between the negative form demonstrated by captive animals and the appropriate and functional form seen in wild animals ... Captive environments that lack appropriate stimuli, space, or place restrictions that prevent specific behavior patterns from being preformed often result in consequences ranging from boredom to stereotypic behaviour (Carlstead, 1996, 1998; Miller et al., 1998; Laule, 2003).' [sic]
Page 5: 'Abnormal, repetitive behaviors are prevalent in zoos (Mason et al., 2007). Pacing, the most common stereotypic behavior in captive carnivores (Mason et al., 2007) may be caused by frustrated foraging or predatory behaviors, especially the appetitive, search and locate phases (Carlstead et al., 1991; Carlstead, 1996; Mellen and Sevenich MacPhee, 2001; Montaudouin and Pape, 2004; Clubb and Mason, 2007).' [sic]
Page 6: 'The absence of stimulating environmental cues may affect behavior, psychological welfare and health by decreasing stimulation-seeking behavior (lethargy), increasing performance of appetitive or social behaviors in unnatural contexts, and can lead to hypersensitivity to stressors (Carlstead, 1996; Mallapur et al., 2002; Wielebnowski, 2003).' [sic]
Page 6: 'The connection between stereotypic behavior and welfare is complex (Swaisgood and Shepherdson, 2005). Stereotypies may form as a means of coping with an adverse environment (Carlstead, 1996; Swaisgood and Shepherdson, 2005; Mason et al., 2007) and may indicate reduced welfare caused by enclosure design'. [sic]
Page 6: 'The consequences of living in a suboptimal enclosure include chronic stress (Liu et al., 2006), a significant divergence from a normal behavioral repertoire and even central nervous system disfunction (Mason et al., 2007).' [sic]
Page 6: 'While stereotypic behaviors may correlate with other indicators of stress and disturbance ... caused by enclosure design, they should not be used as the sole indicator of animal welfare ... as not all stereotypies are a response to stress ... Chronic stress can result in a variety of harmful physiological, immunological, behavioral, and reproductive outcomes'. [sic]
Page 8: 'During acute periods of stress, the first step in the stress response is the release of epinephrine and norepinepherine, the fight or flight response ... Chronic stress has also been shown to result in depression and lethargy in captive animals (Carlstead, 1996).
Environmental Enrichment
Page 9: 'The concept of environmental and behavioral enrichment was introduced by Hal Markowitz in the early 1980s as a way for animals to have control over their lives (Mench and Kreger, 1996). Environment enrichment is an animal husbandry principle with the goal of improving captive animal welfare by increasing avilable behavioral choices to encourage natural behavior ... that enclosures must be of a "size and complexity to provide for the animal's physical and psychological well-being" '.
Page 9: 'The primary goal of enrichment is to identify and lessen potential sources of chronic stress while enhancing an animal's ability to successfully adapt to acute stress (Mellen and Sevenich MacPhee, 2001). For such enrichment to be effective, consideration must be given to the biological relevance of exhibit design ... and design must meet the needs that the animals perceive as important'.
Page 10: 'The most common way of incorporating environmental enrichment is increasing physical complexity by creating exhibit features such as natural flora and fauna (known as exhibit naturalism) and artificial features that stimulate species-specific behavior (Carlstead et al., 1991; Maple and Perkins, 1996; Shepherdson et al., 1998).'
Page 10: 'Captive animals living in an enriched environment spend more time being active and display a greater range of behaviors (Swaisgood et al., 2003).
Page 11: 'There are many potential causes for the stereotypic behaviors seen in bears, such as space restriction, inappropriate exhibit design, and boredom (Hediger, 1950; Steven, 1983). When a bear is unable to perform a behavior, stereotypies may be an expression of frustration ... Most species of bears are omnivorous, spend time climbing and digging, and have a large body size, making it difficult for them to be properly maintained in naturalistic exhibits (Forthman et al., 1992) ... In nature, animals have rhythms of activity, and when a captive animal is unable to perform those rhythms, activities become distorted and may result in abnormal stereotyped behavior (van Keulen-Kromhout, 1978).'
Page 11: 'It is estimated that the average size of captive enclosures is one-thousandth of a species' territory in the wild (van Keulen-Kromhout, 1978). Wild bears in search of food will roam over extensive home ranges (Craighead and Craighead, 1970), spending 94% of their active time foraging ... bears are especially susceptible to developing behavioral problems due to their highly active lifestyles.'
Page 23: 'There is a wealth of knowledge on the historical lineage of zoological parks and their evolution into the modern zoos of today. Many studies have focused on how exhibit design has been used to improve the welfare of the captive animal, particularly decreasing abnormal behaviors. Stereotypic behavior is exhibited by many species in captivity, especially bears, and has been shown to be related to exhibit features. Chronic stress has been named as one of the primary causes of stereotypic behavior though few studies have investigated whether such behavior is, in fact, correlated with elevated levels of glucocorticoids (stress hormones).' [sic]
Page 25: 'Barren, unstimulating, spatially restrictive enclosures limit species-specific behaviour and can lead to the development of stereotypies and health problems caused by chronic stress (Mason et al., 2007). A stereotypic behaviour is a movement pattern considered abnormal because it is morphologically invariant, and performed repetitively with no apparent goal or function, such as pacing (Mason, 1991; Carlstead et al., 1993; Swaisgood and Shepherdson, 2005). Many mammals in captivity are deprived of the benefits of naturalistic habitats to express their species-specific behaviors, such as foraging, mate-seeking, and hunting for prey (Liu et al., 2006).' [sic]
Page 26: 'When experiencing stress, an animal's endocrine responses are activated to improve the fitness of the individual (Möstl and Palme, 2002). While glucocorticoids can improve fitness by mobilizing energy and altering behavior under acute stress, chronic stress (prolonged periods of high glucocorticoid concentrations) may decrease fitness due to immunosuppression, tissue atrophy, and reproductive suppression (Liu et al., 2006; Möstl and Palme, 2002). Stereotypic behaviours are thought to be indicators of stress.' [sic]
Page 26: 'The activity budgets and patterns of captive animals can provide valuable information which should be incorporated into husbandry practices (Weller and Bennett, 2001), such as feeding regimes, social interactions and use of physical features in an exhibit.'
Page 27: 'Despite the trend in modern zoos to create naturalistic enclosures ... Unfortunately, stereotypic behavior is still common in captive bears (van Keulen-Kromhout, 1978; Carlstead et al., 1991; Forthman et al., 1992). Bears in captivity show a higher incidence of stereotypies compared to other mammals' [sic]